Unit 7: Motivation / Course wrap-up

Readings
Instructor notes
Learning activities
Web resources

Readings

Driscoll, Chapters 9, 12

Additional Readings: The Learner-Centered Principles from APA. These principles are available on the web and won't take long to read but will help tie things together if you haven't read them before now. If the link above doesn't work, you can go to: http://www.apa.org/ed/lcp2/lcp14.html)

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Instructor notes

"Facilitating learning is like taking a car trip from New York to California; you can have all the money necessary, buy a new car, make plans well in advance, organize the needed supplies, make the proper reservations, and have everyone including yourself, ready to go, but if you lose the ignition key (or get a flat tire, or take a wrong turn, or run out of gas, or lose your money, etc.), you can't go anywhere. I also believe that even in the most perfect of societies, the motivation to learn on a daily basis would be problematical. Almost anything on a daily basis is; working, child rearing, living together, communicating, and even sleeping suffer a similar fate" (Wlodkowski, 1986)

"While we can't make a horse drink even after we've led them to water, we can give them lots of salt before we get them to the trough - in other words, by arranging conditions that attract, invite and stimulate interest and that help students meet their psychological and academic needs within the classroom, teachers can have a powerful influence over the academic motivation of their students" (Raffini, 1993).

As you see in the quotes above, motivation is a difficult topic for teachers and instructors of students from all ages. We have all had a situation where we felt like we presented interesting information, discussions were stimulating, and yet somehow, we still had difficulty really reaching every student in our class. In the sections below we'll talk about three main questions: 1) How do we motivate people to engage in new learning? 2) How do we help learners develop self-regulatory skills to set their own goals and manage their own learning and performance? and 3) What effects do our assessment practices have on motivation?

Question 1: How do we motivate people to engage in new learning?

Below I describe 5 ideas that help us understand how we can facilitate learner motivation. The Raffini Quote above reminds us that we can't make individuals be motivated. In fact, however, we are wrong when we say that learners are "not motivated". They are always motivated, just not by the requirements and situations within our classrooms or training sessions at this moment. There may be other activities that are higher on their priority list than learning the subject matter we are discussing.

Pique Curiosity and Interest.

Piaget has argued that discrepancies from expectations are occasions for learning. Others (Berlyne, 1966; Hunter, Ames & Koopman, 1983) have argued that people are predisposed to derive pleasure from moderately surprising, incongruent, or discrepant events. Events that are too common are often ignored, as are events that are too discrepant from expectations. Relatedly, Harter (1992) has documented age-related changes in interest in school subjects. Students become less interested in academic material between 3rd and 9th grade (no surprise to those of you who teach high school).

Lepper, Hoddell, and Malone (1987, 1989) have argued in various papers that teachers can enhance the design of their learning activities to pique curiosity and interest (and intrinsic motivation to learn at the same time). They suggest that learning activities should follow these four principles:

  • Challenge: The activity should present meaningful goals, should be of an intermediate level of difficulty, and should remain challenging over time, varying in demands as learner skill or knowledge increases.
  • Curiosity: Providing activities that are surprising, inconsistent, or discrepant from existing ideas can pique curiosity. These inconsistencies should provoke information seeking and resolution. Intermediate levels of incongruity are best, with high or low levels of incongruity often being ignored.
  • Control: Students should be empowered to make choices and to see that outcomes vary as a direct function of his/her choices or responses.
  • Fantasy: Activities can promote intrinsic motivation through the use of fantasy elements. These experiences may allow students to experience vicarious successes not afforded to them in real life. In addition, these fantasy situations may provide a “real” setting into which to apply their new learning and to which new information can be related. Lepper and Cordova (1992) warn that fantasy additions to lessons cannot take the focus away from the process/skill/information the activity was designed to teach.

Help Students Set Goals.

When individuals set goals for themselves, they can evaluate how effectively they have reached those goals. This feedback is immediate and real. We know when we've accomplished (or failed to accomplish) a goal that we set for ourselves. Specific goals are far better than general goals, and learning goals are better than performance goals. With performance goals, students basically decide that they want to get a good grade or avoid looking stupid on a task. These goals lead to problems when a student doesn't do well on a task. You will often see students avoiding difficult tasks or engaging in disruptive rather than on-task behavior. The first behavior assures a good grade; the second makes for a wonderful excuse when a grade on a task is bad. Performance goals are typically held by individuals who believe that intelligence is fixed and cannot be changed - thus failure on a task is directly relevant to one's intelligence level.

Learning goals, on the other hand, are focused on what the student expects to learn out of the task or class. These students are likely to choose challenging tasks, and persist beyond immediate difficulties. Individuals with learning goals tend to believe that intelligence is malleable or changeable. Thus, performance on one task does not affect one's sense of self-worth. It only means one has to work harder to master the material.

Help Students Feel Efficacious about a Task.

Self-efficacy is an important piece of information we use about ourself as we approach a new task. If we feel like we are capable of doing the task, we are likely to approach and persist. If we feel incapable of doing the task, we are likely to avoid it. Our students are no different. We want our students to believe that they are capable individuals in our classes. Now, this is not reminiscent of the self-concept move of the 60's where everyone was capable of "whatever they wanted to do". According to Bandura (and others), to help our students most we need to:

  • remind them of their own previous successes at similar task
  • provide a model who can succeed at the task (similar age, ability level) or provide a coping model (one who can not do the task at first but becomes competent over time)
  • use verbal persuasion to get a student to attempt a task (though realize this has limited success even with small children with no real success on the task to back up what you say)
  • help students interpret the physiological states they find themselves in. Our bodies tell us when we are scared or unsure of ourselves. Help students realize that a little bit of nervousness actually enhances performance. But, also, help them find ways to control their "fidgety stomachs".
  • Provide scaffolding or support as students learn a new task; remove the scaffolding (hints) as skills increase.

Remind Students of the Role THEY Have Had in Their Own Successes.

One important thing to remember. Although many learners will need help to succeed at a task, we must remember to let the learner do as much of the work as they can, even if it means they struggle a bit. When students overcome these difficulties (and we point out that they have), students can right take pride in their own work. Driscoll reminds us that not all tasks in a day can be this challenging, but having some real successes is a key to motivation, regardless of the age of the learner.

Help Students make Appropriate Attributions for Successes and Failures.

After a task is complete, learners typically try to explain the outcomes of the task, particularly if it was an important one. In other words, learners make attributions for their successes and failures. Driscoll (in your book) discusses the important dimensions of attributions. Important for our discussion, however, is the reminder that some attributions are going to impede future task selection and performance. Other attributions will increase the likelihood that we will attempt similar tasks in the future. If we attribute failure to an internal, stable cause like abiliity, we are not likely to attempt similar tasks again. We've already proven to ourselves that we are not capable of doing the task, why try again? If we attribute success to a unstable cause like luck, it's not likely to affect our future studying behavior because we just got "lucky" on that one test.

Typcally, motivation textbooks suggest to teachers that attributions to effort are the most appropriate. This is obviously something we can change if the outcome of a task was not to our satisfaction. But, effort is truly a double-edged sword (Covington and Omelich, 1984). Imagine a situation where we really do try our best and put in a lot of effort into a task. How do we feel if we fail? Well, I tried my best and still couldn't do it, so this must be something I'm just not going to be able to do. On the other hand, if we don't try enough, instructors usually get upset because they say we didn't spend enough time and effort to make the product acceptable. So, what is a student to do with an effort attribution from a teacher?

In my mind, the best way around this is to find out how much effort students put into a task. "Gee, Johnny, this is a really good science report. You must have spent a long time working on it.". If Johnny's response is, "No, not really, it was just a few hours." Then the teacher might rightly attribute success to both ability and the choice of a good strategy."Wow, you seem to have a naturally knack for science. I also can tell you really understood the assignment; your analysis is quite indepth." Alternatively, if a student fails at a task, it's probably worthwhile spending time talking about how they studied rather than whether you believe thay are good at math or science. "Johnny, this test didn't go so well. Why don't we sit down during break and talk about how you prepared. I'm thinking I may have a few ideas that could really help you for the next test." Not only has your comment blamed his study strategy, rather than his abiilty. But, you've also sent the implicit message that you know he can do better next time if he just takes a different approach.

 

Question 2: How do we help learners develop self-regulatory skills to set their own goals and manage their own learning and performance?

Help Students Understand the Meaningfulness of Material.

When students understand the usefulness of meaningfulness of information learned in school, they are more likely to put forth effort into mastering it. Understanding the utility value of the information is really the first step to wanting to work hard to know it.

Help Students Understand the Link between Study Behaviors and Outcomes

Unfortunately, in human behavior, nothing happens all the time. Just because you study doesn't mean you get a better grade. You may have studied the wrong material for one test. But, we can track performance on average; the more effectively we study, the better we do on assessments. As instructors, we can help students understand these links my using some of the ideas for attributions discussed earlier.

Help students set goals and evaluate how well they have met those goals.

When students meet self-set goals, they take pride and build confidence.

Help students learn to choose appropriate strategies to accomplish tasks.

Students, especially as they move from elementary to middle school and from high school to college need help learning to deal with more tasks, more teachers, and higher expectations. Organizing oneself does not come automatically. Whenever new expectations are placed on employees or students, we need to be aware that support will be necessary as students choose appropriate strategies. For example, suppose you want a 12 chapter autobiography from your 8th graders. Create a table in which you can check off pre-write, rough drafts, revisions, and final drafts of each of the chapters. This becomes a tool for self-regulation as they watch the boxes being filled up. For students moving from high school to the work force or college, explain how to create effective to-do lists and keep track of one's progress on complicated tasks. As much as possible, after students are aware of the possible strategies, let them choose appropriate ones to accomplish a task. Some failure choosing incorrect strategies may help later choices (of course, not on big projects!).

Help students better monitor their ongoing learning.

Ormrod (2008) presents an example where 4th graders are trying to memorize their multiplication facts. To help them monitor their progress, the teacher creates a graph that students tape to their desks. After each assessment, students chart their progress. This visual representation can be a great motivator. Each learner can see that over time they are improving.

Help students learn to control their environment

Each student needs to learn their best study environment. In fact, we might talk with them about different choices in study environments. Do you study better in a quiet room? Do you study better with a desk lamp or overhead lights? Do you like soft music or no music at all (we might also discuss how distracting music and other stimuli can be)? When is it good to study with friends? When is it better to study by yourself? As students learn which study environments best match their needs, they become more self-regulating. We might have them write down the study strategies and environments they "used" before a test and have them compare the outcomes from a variety of tests. Which are more useful study environments for them?

Help students reflect on their own learning processes

In the paragraph above I suggested some student reflection on the effectiveness of study environments. You could suggest similar reflections after major projects. You could have students:

  • List three things they learned from the project
  • List one aspect of the project during which they think their strategy use was good
  • List one or more aspects of the project during which they think their strategy use could have been improved

Reflection is one way to generate satisfaction in a job well done. It is not often taken as a core component of the learning process. Some attention here will help students learn more about their self-regulation.

 

Question 3: How do our assessment practices affect motivation?

Borich and Tombari (1997) have written extensively about assessing learning through performances. Their ideas at the very least push us to think more critically and creatively about our assessment choices. What are the motivational implications of our assessment choices?
 
Assessment choices we make in the classroom can easily undermine intrinsic motivation. Some examples might include:

  • Putting emphasis on the assessment (particularly traditional kinds of assessments) rather than on learning itself.
  • Grading on relative performance rather than a common standard (i.e., only giving out so many “A”s).
  • Emphasizing the grades, rather than informative feedback.
  • Not sharing grading criteria, or making it less than clear to students, making students feel less in control of their own performance.
  • Publicly posting performance, particularly if that posting is based on absolute performance (only the “A” papers) rather than on improvement or self-set goals or student judgments of best work.
  • Providing external rewards for tasks that students are already intrinsically motivated to do (this makes the behavior less likely to be repeated, as the reward becomes expected).
  • Using rewards simply to control the “doing” of a behavior, not the quality of learning (e.g., giving students high marks for simply working during a time period, not producing quality work; this lowers the meaning of a high mark in the students’ eyes).
  • Making assessment situations too important (i.e., worth too many points, or too public of a performance with big risks of failure). When the cost is too high (i.e. a bad grade on this one assignment means a C for the grading period), creative assignments or difficult tasks are unlikely to be undertaken.

Performance assessments, on the other hand, can enhance learning and motivation. You'll notice they meet many of the learner-centered principles you read about on the web. Performance assessments:

  • Promote meaningful learning (even teaching to the test)
  • Allow self-appraisal of skill
  • Match the use of information in a real world setting
  • Are composed of meaningful tasks
  • Can easily measure affective reactions as well as knowledge
  • Provide clear and immediate feedback about performance levels 

Performance tests can include portfolios, hands-on assessments like trying to discover which part of an electric circuit is hidden in a box (two batteries, a wire, or nothing), or writing a letter to the editor. They are often authentic (or similar to tasks that adults would complete) and designed to answer the following kinds of questions (Borich and Tombari, 1997):

  • What dispositions, attitudes or values charactierize successful individuals in the community who work in this academic discipline?
  • What are some of the qualities of qualities of mind or character traits possessed by good scientists, writers, reporters, historians, mathematicians, musicians, and so on?
  • What kinds of tasks do real scientists, writers, reporters, historians, mathematicians, musicians, etc really do during their days? What kinds of information can they look up? What do they have to have memorized? How are their performances judged?

Performance tests also allow you to assess higher level learning that would be very difficult in a typical assessment scheme. Does this mean that performance assessments should be your only means of assessing learning? We both know this is not likely. But, the more you can make the assessment a learning experience meaningful, the more students will put forth effort and strive to meet the high expectations you have laid out. Using as much of this as possible creates an environment that students typically perceive as highly motivating.

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Learning activities

7.1 Discussion on motivation and assessment (in Oncourse)

Facilitator to post by Tuesday April 15
Initial posts by Sunday April 19, responses by Friday April 25
Wrapping to be completed by April 27

In 2001, the No Child Left Behind Act was brought into law.  Even if you are not a teacher, you should know about this law if you have children. You might find their “what to know” Index page interesting, particularly the “fact sheet” option .Link to: http://www.nclb.gov/start/facts/index.html. Each state has their own academic standards but here are a few interesting ones.

You may also want to check out the content-related standards for your area of specialization through an easy Google search. If these links don't work, just google the academic areas:

Will a push for standards and accountability lead to more motivated students? Will the ideas in the Learner-Centered Principles’ or the ideas in your readings lead to more motivated students? Under what circumstances would your answers be yes and no? How would you compare and contrast the effects of both standards and pushes for more authentic assessments and deeper content coverage?

7.2 Course Product #3

To be completed by Sunday April 27

In this paper, you should choose two more theories to compare/contrast in light of a problem, issue, or setting of interest to you. Both theories should be ones we have covered in class, but which you have not previously written about if possible

If you're doing this as group, the first thing you will have to decide upon is "something" to write about. Do not worry to much if you end up writing one personal paper and one group paper about the same theory, it may happen, but try to avoid if possible.

Your task in this paper is to evaluate two theories from the perspective of a setting, issue, or problem of importance to you, and to determine how well the theories “fit” the setting or problem you have chosen. Compare and contrast each theory's strengths and weaknesses. Find ways the theories could be improved or how they might build on each other. Note where each theory explains behaviors very well and maybe even where they provide clear ideas for instruction.

Sample titles might include “Situated cognition and schema theory on coaching basketball” or “Bruner and Vygotsky try to make sense of algebra education” or “Constructivism vs. cognitive information processing: which makes more sense when you are treating anxiety disorder in adolescents?"

Remember that I am your audience for the papers. Although I want you to demonstrate that you have a basic understanding of the theory, don’t take up valuable space re-stating the theory. Be sure your paper is about something (i.e. it should not just be a series of unrelated reflections or observations about the theory). Like all good papers, it should have a descriptive title, some kind of thesis statement, and some sort of conclusion after a review of your “evidence”. And, as with any paper of this kind, I will expect it to be well organized and coherent.

This is not intended to be a library research paper. You do not necessarily need to use any resources other than the text and class readings/discussion. You should, however, attribute ideas and citations as appropriate.

7.3 Reflections

To be completed by Sunday April 27

The purpose of the reflection is for you to think about what you have learned through this experience.

If you completed this activity individually, please submit the answer to these questions to your instructor along with your unit product:

1. Why did you choose to work individually on this activity?
2. If you worked in a group for one of the first two products, how did this individual experience compare with the group experience?
3. How did your understanding of the learning theory change through this activity?

If you completed this activity as a group, please answer the following questions individually and submit to the instructor. Please be honest. No group experience is without challenges and frustrations. Reflecting on the challenges of the group experience is just as important as celebrating the positive achievements. Being honest will help me as an instructor give better guidance to teams collaborating online in the future.

1. Evaluate the contribution of EACH of your project team members, including yourself, on a scale from 1 to 5. Refer to the descriptions below as you make your ratings.

0 = team member made no visible contributions to the project OR made significant and sustained negative contributions to the project
1 = team member made minimal contributions to the overall project
2 = team member made uneven contributions to the project - some positive, some negative
3 = team member made reasonable contributions to the project
4 = team member made significant and sustained positive contributions to the project
5 = team member made significant and sustained positive contributions to the project AND supported every member of the group by actively bringing out the best in others.

2. Briefly describe your group's approach to completing this thought activity.

3. Briefly describe your individual contribution and each team member's contributions to the activity.

4. How did your understanding of the learning theory change through this activity?

How this thought activity will be assessed:

1. Please limit your synthesis to 3-4 pages. Again, this will be difficult because you'll want to examine every little detail of both theories. Choose your analysis points carefully.
2. Support your synthesis with evidence from the readings
3. Have you chosen important points to cover? Have you justified your choices and backed up your analysis with a solid understanding of each theory you are using?
4. Both processes and outcomes will be considered in the assessment if this was done as a group.

7.4 Make sure and complete your course evaluation.

To be completed by Wednesday April 30

Complete the online evaluation by going to this Survey Monkey web site. This survey has been set up by our distance education staff and I won't have access to the results until after the course is completed.

7.5 Toward a Personal Theory of Instruction

To be completed by Sunday April 27

Course wrap-up

One of the most important goals of this course is for you to come away with a personal sense of how these learning theories can be of use to you in your future "educational" practice, however broadly that may be defined. I would suggest that, at some point, you ask yourself a series of questions about each of the theories. Since the goal is to construct your own unique understanding of the theories, I can't tell you what those questions would be. I can suggest some possibilities, though, such as
  • What aspects of learning are addressed by this theory?
  • What are the main processes or mechanisms that are proposed to account for learning according to this theory?
  • What, to you, is the single most important "big idea" from this theory?
  • With what other theories is this theory most compatible?
  • Does this theory resonate with your own experiences and beliefs?
  • Does this theory seem to be a good match for the kinds of learners you're interested in?
  • ... for the kinds of learning tasks you're interested in?
  • ... for the kinds of educational settings you're interested in?

Well, you get the idea.

In Unit 1 you drafted a personal theory of learning. You have now done a good deal of reading, discussion and reflection on theories of learning from a variety of perspectives. As a final activity in this course, you have a chance to revise your original theory of learning. Note: This is an individual activity only, as each of our theories of learning will be slightly different.

What changes to the theory will you make now that you have spent the semester thinking deeply about learning theories?

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Web resources

See the webpage under readings for the Learner-Centered Principles.

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Comments: joalexan@indiana.edu

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