The Gap

• there is a "black box" between the ADDIE phases ... how does an instructional design turn into instruction?

• in our professional experience there is a gap between the skills and responsibilities between instructional designers and production specialists

• the design skills of both instructional designers and production specialists are incomplete

Rapid Prototyping

• brings people with different skills together early in the design process

• requires the use of complementary skills for producing effective designs

• allows a glimpse inside the "black box"

A survey of literature shows that many instructional designers and theorists recognize the potential value in rapid prototyping for ISD, and recognize that the inclusion of rapid prototyping in the ISD process requires fundamental changes to that process.

Rapid Prototyping as ...

• early modelling of the product (Tripp & Bichelmeyer, 1990)
• expert system (Li & Merrill, 1991)
• participatory design (Schwen, Dorsey & Goodrum, 1993)
• formative evaluation (Northrup, 1995)
• efficient production (Appelman, Pugh & Siantz, 1995)
• user-centered design (Sugar & Boling, 1995)
• context-sensitive design (Tessmer & Wedman, 1995)
• tool for thought (Rathbun, 1997)
• tool for usability testing (1996)

New Paradigm of ISD

"The health of ISD ... depends on the ability of its practitioners ... to develop a user-designer approach to the ISD process, which:

• conceives of the ISD process as a series of design decisions, each of which requires a cycle of analysis, synthesis, evaluation and change (ASEC),
• attends more to the needs of, and ISD's impact on, its supersystems;
• includes all stakeholder groups in the ISD process: and
• envisions a fuzzy image of the instruction early in the ISD process."

Visualization

We believe that the new paradigm of ISD is dependent on visualization as a method for realizing most of its major premises:

• "fuzzy vision"
• inclusion of all stakeholders in the process
• analysis - synthesis - evaluation - change cycles
• user-designers.

The creation of a temporarily tangible form for emerging concepts and designs.

• extends internal dialogue between designer and concept to include image
• making internal dialogues available for external scrutiny and understanding between designers, stakeholders, and users
• allows users to participate as designers in the process

Examples of Prototypes

Samples shown at the conference:

• conceptual prototype developed with user-designer collaboration
• conceptual prototype showing interface interactions for communication with stakeholders
• rapid prototype of simulation environment created from pencil sketches and made interactive to convey the experiential qualities of the program
• animation test conducted early in project to convey "real person" quality of sequences to be used in a simulation
• high-fidelity prototype of a self-study CD-Rom-based program used for standard usability trials with target audience

Implications

• individual designers need an extended skill set
• ISD programs have to teach visualization explicitly
• the profession must place increased value on nontextual forms of communication in the design process
• professionals must accept uncertainty and change in the ISD process

Bibliography

Appelman, R., Pugh, R. C., & Siantz, J. E. (1995, October). Increasing the efficacy of informal video through rapid prototyping. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Midwestern Educational Research Association, Chicago, IL.

Rapid prototyping is a concept in which formative evaluation is implemented using low-fidelity products that simulate the high-fidelity product used in summative evaluation. This technique, which is helpful in the early stages of development, can be used in video production.

Biggie, A. V. L., Buchanan, W. E., Hazan, P. L., & Kossiakoff, A. (1989). A multimedia rapid prototyping tool for the development of computer-assisted instruction. Johns Hopkins APL Technical Digest, 10(3), 246-258.

A rapid prototyping tool has been designed to aid in the creation of computer-assisted instruction (CAI) software for children with learning disabilities and mental retardation. The tool, which was conceived and developed under the collaborative program between APL and the JHU Division of Education in the School of Continuing Studies, has enabled a multidisciplinary team of educators and computer engineers to visualize and test all features of proposed CAI programs on-line during regular design sessions held around a conference table. Computer program development time has thereby been significantly shortened, and significant gains have been made in the quality of educational products produced.

Butler, K. A. (1996). Usability engineering turns ten. Interactions, 3(1), pp. 59-75.

Retrospective of origins and development of usability engineering (including rapid prototyping), and the technologies that have enabled it.

Edmunds, G. S., Branch, R. C., & Mukherjee, P. (1994). A conceptual framework for comparing instructional design models. Educational Technology Research and Development, 42(4), 55-72.

Defines rapid prototyping as an expert/intuitive-based model since heuristics, past experience, knowledge and intuition guide the design. Suggests a need for explicit articulation of intuition in instructional design.

Finger, S., Terk, M., Subrahmanian, E., Kasabach, C., Prinz, F., Siewiorek, D. P., Smailagic, A., Stivoric, J., & Weiss, L. (1996). Rapid design and manufacture of wearable computers. Communications of the ACM, 39(2).

This article discusses the rapid design and manufacturing of wearable computer devices. Design of these devices is a dynamic process, as six-months time might result in major technological advances and changes. Rapid prototyping is important to this process because designers go back and forth between the concrete and the abstract. The iterative process of rapid prototyping allows ideas to emerge and be progressively mocked up and evaluated until the final product is complete.

Goodrum, D. A., Dorsey, L. T., & Schwen, T. M. (1993). Defining and building an enriched learning and information environment. Educational Technology, 23(11), 10-20.

Discusses the development of an Enriched Learning and Information Environment (ELIE). Highlights include technology-based and theory-based frameworks for designing ELIEs; a socio-technical definition; a conceptual prototype; a participatory design process, including iterative design through rapid prototyping; and design issues for technology systems. Recommends rapid prototyping as a realistic alternative when doing actual design for actual users due to its speed and the ability to conduct several design stages simultaneously.

Jones, M. K., Gibbons, A. S., & Varner, D. C. (1994, June). A re-usable algorithm for teaching procedural skills. Paper presented at the ED-MEDIA 94, Vancouver, BC, Canada.

The design of a re-usable instructional algorithm for computer-based instruction (CBI) is described. The algorithm is designed to reduce development and life cycle costs for CBI by providing an authoring environment suited for subject matter experts who do not have instructional skills, and by supporting rapid prototyping. The strategy and tactics are predefined; the instructional developer need only describe the desired performance and the environment of the performance. The specific algorithm described implements a simulation-based reactive environment for learning and practicing device operation skills. The approach to designing and implementing the algorithm is general and should apply to other instructional outcomes.

Jones, M. K., Li, Z., & Merrill, M. D. (1992). Rapid prototyping in automated instructional design. Educational Technology Research and Development, 40(4), 95-100.

This article describes the impact of tools being developed as part of the Second Generation Instructional Design (ID2) Research Program on the process of instructional design. ID2 supports rapid prototyping as a design and development process. Rapid prototyping is described and contrasted with the instructional systems development (ISD process).

Kumar, V., Bajcsy, R., Harwin, W., & Harker, P. (1996). Rapid design and prototyping of customized rehabilitation aids. Communications of the ACM, 39(2), 55-61.

This article discusses the customized design and manufacture of rehabilitation aids for individuals with physical disabilities. Rapid prototyping is recommended as a method for quickly meeting the needs of a specific consumer. In this discussion, rapid prototyping follows a period of virtual prototyping, and may not be necessary if the virtual prototype is deemed successful and faithful to the end product. Rapid prototyping may be done for just one component of a larger product; it is not necessary to prototype an entire product. The cycle of virtual and rapid prototyping, with product testing and evaluation, will result in a detailed design.

Li, Z., & Merrill, M. D. (1991). ID Expert 2.0: Design theory and process. Educational Technology Research and Development, 39(2), 53-69.

ID Expert is a prototype instructional design expert system that assists an instructional designer in developing instructional materials. The primary purposes for developing ID Expert are to provide tools for making instructional design more efficient and effective and to develop a more precise instructional design theory. The theory underlying ID Expert integrates much of the existing work in instructional design, learning theory, and cognitive science. A set of declarative constructs and prescriptive rules for this theory has been identified and partially implemented as a prototype version of ID Expert. In this article, the process involved in designing a course using ID Expert is demonstrated, and the instructional design theory underlying the system is discussed.

Muller, M. J., Wildman, D. M., & White, E. A. (1993). Equal opportunity PD using PICTIVE. Communications of the ACM, 36(4), 64-66.

A low-tech participatory design (PD) technique that was created in response to rapid prototyping and the Scandinavian mock-up approaches is termed PICTIVE (Plastic Interface for Collaborative Technology Initiatives through Video Exploration). A technology environment for design activity is not involved in PICTIVE, unlike rapid prototyping, in which users have to express their views through a third party. Like other mock-up approaches, PICTIVE places more of the initiative directly in users' hands with the intention of providing an equal opportunity design environment for all those participating. An overview of the PICTIVE approach, and PICTIVE models are provided.

Northrup, P. T. (1995). Concurrent formative evaluation: Guidelines and implications for multimedia designers. Educational Technology, 35(6), 24-31.

Discusses formative evaluation for multimedia instruction and presents guidelines for formatively evaluating multimedia. Data collection are presented, and storyboards and prototypes are discussed. Recommends rapid prototyping as part of the design process to provide a tangible product for gathering feedback. The rapid prototype should be like the final design in its look and feel, but need not contain detailed content. Data regarding end user acceptance can be collected from the rapid prototype.

Rathbun, G. A. (1997). Reconceiving ISD: Three perspectives on rapid prototyping as a paradigm shift. Proceedings of Selected Research and Development Presentations at the 1997 National Convention of the Association for Educational Communications and Technology (February, 1997).

Discussion of rapid prototyping examines perspectives of prototype as designer's cognitive tool, designer as co-inquirer, and practioner as producer of knowledge.

Rettig, M. (1994). Prototyping for tiny fingers. Communications of the ACM, 37(4), 21-27.

Low-fidelity (low-fi) prototyping for interface design and testing is a viable alternative to hard-coding methods that can be costly and time-consuming. This technique involves constructing paper models of various interface components that can be arranged in various combinations. At the same time, users are on hand to evaluate the proposed layouts, along with a video camera and a note-taker to document the proceedings. Coded prototypes are more realistic, but there are substantial drawbacks, such as the time needed to affect changes, the tendency of testers to focus on trivial attributes, developer resistance to change, and the risk that a single bug will halt the testing process entirely.

Reigeluth, C. M. & Nelson, L. M. (1997). A new paradigm of ISD. In R. M. Branch & B. B. Minor (Eds.). Educational Media and Technology Yearbook (Vol. 22). Englewood, CO: Libraries Unlimited Incorporated, Inc.

Addresses the question, "Do we need a new paradigm of ISD?" Takes the position that "The health of ISD ... depends on the ability of its practitioners ... to develop a user-designer approach to the ISD process, which:

• conceives of the ISD process as a series of design decisions, each of which requires a cycle of analysis, synthesis, evaluation and change (ASEC),
• attends more to the needs of, and ISD's impact on, its supersystems;
• includes all stakeholder groups in the ISD process: and
• envisions a fuzzy image of the instruction early in the ISD process."

Rudd, J., & Isensee, S. (1994). Twenty-two tips for a happier, healthier prototype. Interactions, 1(1), 35-40.

This article presents twenty-two tips for producing prototypes. Most tips focus on management, personnel and production issues.

Rudd, J., Stern, K., & Isensee, S. (1996). Low vs. high-fidelity prototyping debate. Interactions, 3(1), 76-85.

This article discusses high and low fidelity prototyping. Low-fidelity prototypes are constructed rapidly and have limited function and interaction; they serve to demonstrate concepts, design options and screen layouts. High-fidelity prototypes are not constructed as quickly, but they more fully represent the function, interface and interaction of the designed product. Advantages and disadvantages of both levels of prototyping are discussed along with tips for when and how to use them.

Schwen, T. M., Goodrum, D. A., & Dorsey, L. T. (1993). On the design of an Enriched Learning and Information Environment (ELIE). Educational Technology, 33(11), 5-9.

Discusses the concept and design of an enriched learning and information environment that was originally developed at Indiana University in partnership with AT&T. Topics addressed include constructivism, cognitive tools, representing expert behavior, apprenticeship, technological tools, information tools, group decision tools, and performance support systems. Discusses reliance on rapid prototyping to envision and test tools within short, iterative development cycles.

Sugar, W. A., & Boling, E. (1995, February). User-centered innovation: A model for "Early Usability Testing". Paper presented at the 1995 Annual National Convention of the Association for Educational Communications and Technology, Anaheim, CA.

The goal of this study is to show how some concepts and techniques from disciplines outside Instructional Systems Development (ISD) have the potential to extend and enhance the traditional view of ISD practice when they are employed very early in the ISD process. The concepts and techniques employed were user-centered design and usability, and the context of the study was an instructional development project, Indiana University Center for Excellence in Education's (CEE) Virtual Textbook, in the earliest stages of design.

Tessmer, M. (1994). Formative evaluation alternatives. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 7(1), 3-18.

Discusses RP as a form of both evaluation and instructional design. The advantages are the ability to evaluate product before a great investment is made. Disadvantages are the tendencies toward a design-by-repair approach and lack of adequate front end analysis. Applicable contexts are those in which the media, content or strategies are novel to the design team.

Tessmer, M., & Wedman, J. (1995). Context-sensitive instructional design models: A response to design research, studies and criticism. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 8(3), 38-54.

This essay discusses various types of prototyping, including rapid prototyping, as an emerging trend in ID models, allowing several ID tasks to be addressed concurrently.

Tripp, S. D., & Bichelmeyer, B. (1990). Rapid prototyping: An alternative instructional design strategy. Educational Technology Research and Development, 38(1), 31-44.

A design methodology called rapid prototyping has been used successfully in software engineering. Given the similarities between software design and instructional design, we argue that rapid prototyping is a viable model for instructional design, especially for computer-based instruction. Additionally, we argue that recent theories of design offer plausible explanations for the apparent success of rapid prototyping in software design. Such theories also support the notion that rapid prototyping is appropriate for instructional design. We offer guidelines for the use of rapid prototyping and list possible tradeoffs in its application.

Will, U. K. (1995). Hyperform: Rapid prototyping of hypermedia services. Communications of the ACM, 38(8), 109-111.

Hyperform is a dynamic, open and distributed multi-user hypermedia application development environment aimed at rapid prototyping of multimedia services. It is based on the concepts of extensibility, tailorability and rapid prototyping of data models, hyperbase management systems (HBMS) and system architectures. The Hyperform development environment comprises multiple instances of an HBMS, a tool integrator and editors.

Winer, L. R., & Vazquez-Abad, J. (1995). The present and future of ID practice. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 8(3), 55-67.

To further examine what designers actually do as compared to what they should do, a study of designer practice based on the "Layers of Necessity" model was conducted. The data were surprisingly homogeneous given the heterogeneous composition of the group, all members of a local NSPI chapter. Results contribute to validation of the underlying ID model and confirm previous findings that designers do not systematically perform all the steps in any ID model. Discusses the influence and use of prototyping in ID, often characterized by quick analysis and development followed by trial.

Wong, S. C.-H. (1994). Quick prototyping of educational software: An object-oriented approach. Journal of Educational Technology Systems, 22(2), 155-172.

This article introduces and demonstrates the "quick" or "rapid" prototyping software engineering paradigm which can be easily employed by casual software designers such as classroom teachers using object-oriented software production tools. Development of an educational software called "The Match-Maker," a game for learning new words, is used as an example using HyperCard and its scripting language, HyperTalk, for quick prototyping.

Zillesen, P. G. v. S. (1992). The simultaneous production model: A model for the construction, testing, implementation and revision of educational computer simulation environments (ED351004): ERIC Document.

A model for producing educational computer simulation environments is introduced. Important phenomena of the model are: dynamic specifications, the use of fast-prototyping techniques, object-oriented coding techniques and adaptability. Four production stages are described: the initial specification phase, the prototyping cycle, the field-test cycle and the implementation cycle.