Home > Courses > NORTH AMERICAN ARCHAEOLOGY | Lewis C. Messenger
Overviews: | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12A | 12B | 12C | 12D |
| 13A | 13B | 13C | 13D | 14 | 15A | 15B | 15C | 15D | 16 | 17 | 18 |
Modules: | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12A | 12B | 12C | 12D |
| 13A | 13B | 13C | 13D | 14 | 15A | 15B | 15C | 15D | 16 | 17 | 18 |
Other: | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 |    Syllabus

NORTH AMERICAN ARCHAEOLOGY ESSAY BANK

(Questions used in Anthropology 3220, spring 2002 at Hamline University)
Following is a matrix containing links to individual lesson modules, the module name, and then related essay numbers.  The individual essay questions that have been used before can be accessed directly by clicking on the individual numbers, or by scrolling down to look at the entire list.  Note that some of the essay numbers are repeated from one module to another.  This is done to illustrate where essay content may dovetail across various modules and to provide for flexibility for those using these materials to tailor courses to their own interests and academic schedule.
Module: Lesson/Module Name: Related Essay Numbers:
Module 01 Introduction to Class and Making the Instructor a Known Commodity  
Module 02 Contemporary Archaeology and the Importance of Writing Skills  
Module 03 Native Culture Areas - Historical Backdrop to the Discipline 1, 2
Module 04 Setting the Environmental Scene - The Pleistocene Scene 3, 5, 6, 7, 10, 22, 23
Module 05 Theories on the Earliest Colonists 4
Module 06 Early Arctic and Subarctic 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15
Module 07 Early Pacific Northwest 15, 17, 18, 19, 20
Module 08 The Plateau 16, 17
Module 09 Prehistoric Peoples of California 21
Module 10 Peoples of the Ancient Great Plains 22, 23, 24, 26, 29
Module 11 Oneota - Midwestern Mississippian 30
Module 12A Eastern Woodlands - Northeastern Archaic Cultures 27, 28
Module 12B Eastern Woodlands - Early Woodland Through the Adena 28, 31
Module 12C Eastern Woodlands - Middle and Late Woodland Cultures the Hopewell 32, 38
Module 12D Eastern Woodlands - Later Peoples of the Long House and Wigwam 33
Module 13A Southeastern Woodlands - the Archaic Poverty Point 35, 36, 37, 46
Module 13B Southeastern Woodlands - the Sedentary Period Marksville 34, 38, 46
Module 13C Southeastern Woodlands - Mississippian Late Prehistoric Cultural Developments 39, 40, 41, 42, 43
Module 13D Southeastern Woodlands - Mississippian Cahokia Late Prehistoric Metropolis on the Mississippi 43
Module 14 Prehistoric Peoples of the Great Basin 47, 48
Module 15A Southwest Region - Archaic 49, 50, 51, 61
Module 15B Southwest Region - The Hohokam 49, 51, 52, 61
Module 15C Southwest Region - The Mogollon and Mimbres 49, 51, 53, 55, 57, 58, 59, 61, 62
Module 15D Southwest Region - The Anasazi 49, 50, 54, 55, 56, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63
Module 16 "Discovery" By Whom" - First Contact with Europeans (And Others)  
Module 17 What the History Books Forgot to Tell Us  
Module 18 Ethical Dilemmas in North American Archaeology - Emics and Etics ("Ours" and "Theirs"?) - and CRM? 64, 65, 66
 
 
ESSAYS:
1. Consider the traditional cultural area approach to North American prehistory. Culture areas are the primary organizational headings. Consider what we have used thus far: the Arctic, the Subarctic, the Plateau, the Northwest Coast, and California. Are such headings appropriate? If not, offer an alternative or reworking of the existent approach that would more appropriately suggest significant cultural dynamic headings. Provide compelling examples. (Note!, this may not seem as easy at it appears on the surface.)
2. We have discussed the concept of "Culture Area" in terms of its historical origins (the term) and also from a methodological angle (e.g., what does the term mean and of what use is it as an explanatory concept - tool - to us?).

Write an essay that:
    A. Defines the concept of "culture area
    B. Discusses the history of the term
    C. Discusses how the concept has been reflected in the development of archaeological approaches in North America.
3. On various occasions we spent some time discussing generalities about the cultural transformations that occurred as a result of changes following the Pleistocene. In Europe the general term that chronologically and culturally ties into this is "Mesolithic" and in North America the preferred term is "Archaic."

Write an essay discussing the nature of such cultural transformations and suggest what dynamics contributed to such changes.
4. While we can point to various forms of evidence, derived primarily from archaeology, that address the origins of the earliest Native Americans (or, following the Canadian preferential terminology, the "First Nations"). Prior to the emergence of anthropological archaeology other sources of evidence were put forth. It was suggested that the initial (i.e. 16th century Renaissance European) understandings of what and who Native American peoples were must be understood within the particular cultural context of the times.

Write an essay outlining the nature of the earliest European perceptions of what and who these people were. How did their definition by Europeans reflect the agendas of the times? What were these agendas? What were the issues? What were the controversies engendered? How were they resolved?
5. We spent a considerable amount of time discussing the issues surrounding the earliest peopling of the New World. This involved setting both the cultural and ecological (e.g., climatological, biological, geographical) "stage" for the areas of east and northeast Asia and for the northwestern portion of North America.

Write an essay describing:
    A. What were the cultural factors present in east and northeast Asia leading up to the initial migration to the New World and,
    B. What were the significant ecological variables that were emphasized in this process
6. Describe in general terms what was the impact on global climatic patterns of the Pleistocene cooling period. Go beyond the obvious fact that there were glacial masses that spread in much of the northern hemisphere. In your discussion use the illustration provided by our discussion of "normal" versus Pleistocene global moisture/precipitation budgets to look at areas beyond those that were directly under glaciation. What kinds of implications can you derive that would be of interest to archaeologists?
7. What were the factors that made some of the earliest sites controversial (e.g., Old Crow Flats, Lagoa Santa [and/or Soumidouro], Calico Hills)? In your essay consider issues such as stratigraphy, deposition, dating, relative "survivability" of data, etc. Note, that in some respects this essay involves more general archaeological theory than just specifics on a single site
8. Discuss the prehistory of Arctic archaeological culture area by addressing the following:
    A. Briefly describing the ecological variables posed by the Arctic environment
    B. What is the nature of archaeological preservation and research there
    C. What is the impact such environmental conditions had on human cultural developments there
    D. What were some of the environmental pros and cons posed to the prehistoric peoples of the Arctic?
9. Discuss the prehistory of Subarctic archaeological culture area by addressing the following:
    A. Briefly describing the ecological variables posed by the Subarctic environment,
    B. What is the nature of archaeological preservation and research there
    C. What is the impact such environmental conditions had on human cultural developments there
    D. What were some of the environmental pros and cons posed to the prehistoric peoples of the Arctic?
10. While one may generalize about the Arctic environment, it is nonetheless true that there arose a series of cultural traditions there. Generally, trace the cultural developments of the Arctic area by making reference to technology types and how these changed over time. Provide speculation on how such changing technologies reflected changes in resource orientation.
11. Briefly describe the Subarctic culture area and how it has been defined. Defend the rationale for subdividing this area into the Eastern versus the Western Subarctic. What distinguishes the two Subarctic subareas?
12. Roughly, where and what is the Port aux Chois site? What is its significance for our understanding of Subarctic prehistory? This asks you to be familiar with the kinds of things recovered from the site and the interpretive implications that can be drawn from them. What about this site can be related to issues of the "Red_Paint People?"
13. Consider the Thule Tradition. What part did it play in the prehistoric picture of the Arctic, the Subarctic, and Alaska? What was their history and with whom (e.g., with what groups) did they come in contact in these areas? In other words, demonstrate why our understanding of the prehistoric cultural dynamics of those areas would be incomplete without making reference to them.
14. The Eskimos (the Iĝuit) are generally considered relative late_corners. Describe what you would archaeologically expect that would indicate their having been at a site you are excavating. This should involve both characteristic artifacts and some references to physical anthropological characteristics.
15. Defend or refute the idea that our understanding of the prehistoric cultural dynamics of the interior Plateau and the Northwest Coast cannot be complete without understanding the archaeological record of the southwest and south coast of Alaska.

In your discussion make reference to specific archaeological data and specific cultural traditions.
16. Briefly characterize the ecological factors present in the interior Plateau environment. This area is drained by the Columbia and Fraser rivers. How did the riverine drainage system affect the trajectory of human cultural developments in the Plateau area? What aspects of the Columbia River system should be considered by archaeologists interested in the earliest peoples of the area?
17. The prehistoric cultures of the Northwest Coast are considered to have cultural "debts" to peoples in adjoining regions__namely the peoples of the Kodiak Tradition and the peoples of the Plateau. Compare and contrast the archaeological information on the Kodiak and Plateau peoples and defend or refute the suggestion that they were instrumental in the development of the Northwest Coast cultural tradition.
18. Consider the development of the characteristic Northwest Coast ground_stone technology (and art). Suggest routes and points of origin for this tradition and possible cultural dynamic factors that might have been involved (Do it this way to avoid just saying, "It diffused from point X to point X.").
19. Compare and contrast the nature of what we know about Northwest Coast culture from the archaeological (e.g. Ozette - note this was discussed in the film) versus the ethnographic record. Are there environmental factors that are unique to the Northwest Coast that have anything to do with this question? If so, how so?
20. Reflect, digest, synthesize, and perhaps "deconstruct"(?) some of what we have as a legacy of Columbus' voyage. One area in particular involves the idea that the Americas are somewhat of a laboratory example of the emergence of cultures completely in isolation from the rest of the world.

Write an essay that questions this idea; that emphasizes the idea that it might be more appropriate to look at the far northern Pacific rim as having been an area more of "community" rather than as having been absolutely separated. Furthermore, in your essay attempt to go beyond the obvious connection of the ancestral peoples having originally migrated across the Bering Land Bridge some time during the Pleistocene. Employ specific examples in your essay.
21. California prehistory may best be appreciated by considering what we know about the ethnohistoric and ethnographic aboriginal populations there. Discuss what archaeological data would best be explained by using California ethnohistoric, ethnographic, and linguistic information
22. We have discussed the prehistory of a number of culture areas of North America since the last test. These have been: the Great Plains (and Upper Midwest), the northern Eastern Woodlands, and the Southeast. In each of these areas there has been a common "cultural denominator" in the form of the earliest peoples who settled there during and following the Pleistocene. They have gone by various names, but there are certain generalizations that can be made about the trends in their cultural development(s).

Discuss the Paleoindian and subsequent Archaic Periods for these areas and note the major transformations that indicate that cultural change has occurred. This question asks you to distinguish these two periods utilizing information that is indicated by the archaeological record
23. Considering some of the statements indicated in Question 22 (above), what is there about the Archaic Period cultures that makes it almost a "necessary cultural step" that early peoples had to experience? What went on in the Archaic (e.g., ecologically, culturally, etc.) that allowed for subsequent, distinctive cultural developments in each of the areas?
24. Locate and ecologically characterize what we mean by the Great Plains. Provide a general cultural developmental scheme for this area beginning with the Paleoindian Period and extending through the Plains Village Period peoples.

What, and why, were the major cultural transformations that occurred there?
25. Consider prehistoric cultural evolution on the Great Plains in terms of its environmental, geologic, and geographic characteristics.

Why was it that that area apparently did not witness the kinds of cultural intensifications and developments that led to florescences such as was the case with the Ohio Hopewell and the Mississippian? What role did the ancient cultures of the Great Plains play with respect to much of the rest of North America?
26. Write an essay providing a textual sketch of what a time traveler would expect to see if they traveled back in time to 1491 in the North American Great Plains, perhaps somewhere along the Missouri River in South Dakota.
27. Locate and ecologically characterize what we mean by the northern Eastern Woodlands. Provide a general cultural developmental scheme for this area beginning with the Paleoindian Period and extending through the Late Woodland Period peoples. What, and why, were the major cultural transformations that occurred there?
28. Define and discuss what is meant by Caldwell's term "primary forest efficiency." What does this mean with respect to the prehistoric cultures of the northern Eastern Woodlands? What implications might it also have for other native American archaeological (and ethnohistoric) peoples? Why?
29. Consider what is implied by the eastern Woodland tradition. Focusing on cultural adaptive strategies, why did it have limited "success" on the Great Plains? What was the Plains Woodland culture like? Why do we include them as Woodland cultures (as opposed to something else)?
30. Describe and discuss archaeologically what we mean by Oneota. Where were they located? Is there controversy about them? And, if so, what is it (are they) and how have archaeologists attempted to resolve it (them)?
31. In our discussion of the northern Eastern Woodland cultures we have dealt with two cultural florescenses that characterized the Early Woodland and the later Middle Woodland Periods: Adena and Hopewell. Describe, compare, and contrast these two cultural expressions. Roughly when were they? Where were they located? What were their most outstanding archaeological characteristics?
32. What is meant by the term "interaction sphere?" It has been applied to the Eastern Woodlands in the form of the "Hopewell Interaction Sphere." What were the archaeological indicators of this and what are some of the cultural implications that its existence suggests?
33. Write an essay providing a textual sketch of what a time traveler would expect to see if they traveled back in time to 1491 in the ancient Northeast, say somewhere in upstate New York or southern Ontario.
34. Describe and discuss archaeologically what is meant by the Sedentary Period in the Southeast. What are its main 3 subdivisions? What characterizes each subdivision? Take a site discussed for each subdivision and use it as an example of what characterizes each of the sub-periods.
35. Why have archaeologists made such a big deal about fiber tempered pottery? What period does it appear to relate to? Where is it found? What are the issues and controversies?
36. Consider the concept of "chiefdom." What does the term mean (e.g., what do "chiefs" do?)? As a Southeastern archaeologist, what kinds of indicators provide evidence for the existence of prehistoric chiefdoms there? What site(s) indicate the emergence of chiefdoms in the Southeast?
37. Some have suggested that the site of Poverty Point (overlooking the Macon Bayou near Floyd, Louisiana—I love it!) archaeologically has characteristics that are shared by sites in the Olmec area of southern Mesoamerica.

Write an essay providing the main points of the argument—both pro and con. In your comparative essay be sure to deal with comparisons looking at relative chronology, artifact inventory, settlement, and architecture.
38. We have discussed the decline of the Hopewell in the prehistoric northern Eastern Woodlands. We have also discussed possible extensions of Hopewell culture beyond their "homeland" into the Southeast. Consider various aspects of how the Hopewell decline may have figured in ancient Southeastern cultural dynamics. What may have happened? Roughly when?
39. Describe and discuss archaeologically what is meant by the Late Prehistoric Period (e.g., "Mississippian") in the Southeast. What are its main archaeological indicators? Use site descriptions as examples. You may describe a hypothetical "characteristic Mississippian" site as an example if you wish.
40. Numerous authors have suggested that the emergence of complex societies during the Late Prehistoric Period (e.g., "Mississippian") was made possible by cultural stimuli from the area of Mesoamerica. Defend that position using appropriate examples to back up your case.
41. Evidence has been put forth that suggests that the emergence of Late Prehistoric Period complex societies (e.g., "Mississippian") may have been the result of autochthonous cultural developments. Defend this position using appropriate examples to back up your case.
42. What is meant by the "Southern Cult?" What kinds of artifacts are used as indicators of its presence? What other kinds of cultural phenomena would its existence also imply? Can you think of other analogous situations we have discussed in this class? If yes, what?
43. Characterize the archaeological site of Cahokia. What about the site can be considered as consistent (e.g., typical) of other Late Prehistoric sites? What about it can be considered distinctive?
44. We have discussed various prehistoric foraging (e.g., hunting-and-gathering) cultures and the options that were open to them when their population levels were reaching critical proportions such their population level was overtaking local food capabilities. What are their options? Does one of them relate to "organizational stress?" If so, how so? Cite and provide an archaeological example.
45. Write an essay providing a textual sketch of what a time traveler would expect to see if they traveled back in time to 1491 in the ancient Southeast, perhaps somewhere in northern Louisiana.
46. With respect to the ancient Southeastern United States, what constitutes the major transformations that characterize the shift from:
    A. Paleoindian to Archaic
    B. Archaic to Sedentary, and
    C. Sedentary to Late Prehistoric ("Mississippian") lifestyles?
  How are each of these observed archaeologically?
47. What do we geographically and ecologically define as the Great Basin? Briefly characterize the ecological factors present in the Great Basin environment that impacted on cultural developments there. In your discussion of ecological factors take into consideration climatic change from the Pleistocene to the present.
48. What characterizes the prehistoric Fremont Culture? Where are Fremont sites located? What particular facets of Fremont Culture are characteristic of other local traditions? What facets suggest cultural interchange with what other more distant cultural traditions?
49. Locate and ecologically characterize what we mean by the Desert Southwest. Provide a general cultural developmental scheme for this area beginning with the Paleoindian Period and extending through the cultural florescence of the Mogollon, Hohokam, and Anasazi peoples.

What were the major cultural transformations that occurred there? Why did such cultural transformations occur there?
50. Some archaeologists narrowly define the American Southwest, while some prefer to amplify the definition to talk about the "Greater Southwest." Describe both the American Southwest (narrowly defined)—-and the, "Greater Southwest."

The two geographical terms reflect meaningful archaeological notions. In your comparison of both terms be sure to indicate the logical perspective of each term (i.e. why each one can be viewed as meaningful more than just semantic).
51. Consider the cultural developmental trends characteristic of the Desert Southwest. A number of authors have suggested that this area did not develop in a cultural vacuum, rather that there were examples of cultural development that were stimulated from the south in Mesoamerica.

For this essay, argue from the position that throughout the southwestern developmental sequence there does exist evidence that Mesoamerica played some part. This does not imply that the Southwest was some kind of "outpost" of Mesoamerican culture, rather, what are examples that have been given of prehistoric Mexican "influences" affecting southwestern cultural development?
52. What archaeologically characterizes the Hohokam? Briefly describe their cultural development. What was their adaptive strategy? What sets them apart from the other remaining cultures of the Desert Southwest? What most probably accounts for their decline?
53. What archaeologically characterizes the Mogollon? Briefly describe their cultural development. What was their adaptive strategy? What sets them apart from the other remaining cultures of the Desert Southwest? What most probably accounts for their decline?
54. What archaeologically characterizes the Anasazi sequence? Briefly describe their cultural development. What was their adaptive strategy? What sets them apart from the other remaining cultures of the Desert Southwest?
55. One characteristic element, or "trait," of developed southwestern cultures was the kiva. What is a kiva? Architecturally what is it? What kinds of details are always present to indicate that it is a kiva (and not something else)? Is it universally found in all prehistoric southwestern archaeological sites? What most probably did it evolve from?
56. When one speaks of the "Chaco Phenomenon" what is implied? If you were able to take a time machine back to Pueblo II times (ca. AD 900_1100), what would you describe as going on in Chaco Canyon and the adjacent countryside?
57. Who were the Mimbres? Where were they located? What did the Mimbres produce that has made them so famous today (what use might they have made of it/them)? What sets them apart from the other prehistoric peoples of the Desert Southwest?
58. Archaeologically, what do we mean by the "Classic Mimbres Collapse?" Various theories have been put forth to account for this phenomenon.

List and describe at least 2 distinct theories explaining the Mimbres decline.
59. We have mentioned the possible significance of activities related to the ancient site of Casas Grandes in Chihuahua State in northern Mexico.

Describe Casas Grandes as a place and roughly what time period we are talking about. Then, discuss what part(s) cultural activities at that site may have played in terms of prehistoric American Southwestern peoples.
60. There have been a number of scenarios suggested that account for the relocation and decline of the prehistoric Anasazi peoples. List and describe a few and evaluate their effectiveness as means of explaining the cultural decline in the Desert Southwest. Can you provide an alternate (or synthetic) explanation?
61. Mesoamerica has been suggested as an important source of cultural stimulation for both the Southeast and the Southwest. Defend this position by making reference to prehistoric developments in the Southwest. Employ 3 examples in your essay.
62. Write an essay providing a textual sketch of what a time traveler would expect to see if they traveled back in time to 1491 in the North American "Greater Southwest" (i.e. "creative literature" but based on substantial examples!). Assume that you have seen the area as it is today. What might they note as being consistent with today's "scene?" What would they see that would be different from today?
63. Briefly define the "Trade Hypothesis" as it is often applied to archaeological questions. For examples you might want to address this with reference to the florescence during the Mimbres Phase of the Mogollon and/or the "Chaco Phenomena." What is the underpinning rationale of the "Trade Hypothesis" and what are its pros and cons? Come up with your own perspective on the utility, or lack of it, for using the "Trade Hypothesis" to explain ancient cultural developments in the Greater Southwest Note, this question has not been specifically addressed in class lecture, but you should have some opinions by now. I will not be grading this based on your opinions, but on how well you engage the question with detailed responses backed up by examples.
64. In terms of the material culture of the American "First Nations," who are the concerned parties and what are their concerns (i.e. "vested interests")? In other words, pick 3 of the following, define what they refer to, and write an essay discussing why should we be concerned with studying the:
    A. "Culture of anthropologists and archaeologists"
    B. "Culture of Educators"
    C. "Culture of Museologists"
    D. "Culture of Private Collectors"
    E. "Emics of Indigenous Material Culture"
65. Note that in this essay there is room for your subjectivity. Creativity will be rewarded, but not if you do not substantiate your case.

Write an essay reflecting on the possible implications of two alternate mind-sets in archeology today: (1) that utilizes "pre-" and "post-contact" terminology, and the other (2) that prefers to talk in terms of "global systems." Why might it be preferable to utilize "global systems" terminology to discuss ancient cultural developments in the Americas?
66. Note that in the following there is potential for individual subjectivity. The questions below should nonetheless be viewed as serious. Read the question carefully and be sure to answer the one you choose thoughtfully and clearly show me your thinking and logical progression in your essay.

In this question choose either (A) or (B).
    A. Especially if you perceive of yourself as a cultural anthropologist:

Specifically, what do you find in the archaeology of ancient North America that has had the greatest impact on the discipline of anthropology as a whole? What about North American Archaeology do you feel strongly should be integrated in the research of the rest of the anthropological discipline? (What important messages can North American archaeology tell the rest of our discipline?)

    B. Especially if you are coming out of another discipline:

Specifically, what have you found in North American Archaeology that is applicable to you in your non-anthropological discipline? (Another way of thinking about this would be to ask yourself, why people in your discipline, or career direction, should be familiar with North American archaeology?)

  Remember, I cannot grade your opinions, but I will make a grade determination based upon the thoroughness and sensitivity of your answer.

© 2003 MATRIX
Project Director: Anne Pyburn
Indiana University Bloomington